EMNLP 2011 でひときわ目を引くタイトル "Cooooooooooooooollllllllllllll!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Using Word Lengthening to Detect Sentiment in Microblogs" (Brody & Diakopoulos) は、twitter 上での表現を評判分析に使う話。
Cooooooooooooooollllllllllllll のような文字を必要以上に繰り返す twitter でよくみる表現に注目して、このような表現が意見や評価を述べるときによく使われるという点を主張しているのがポイント。
まあ直感的にもうなずける分析だと思う。
論文の中では、そのためにまず Cooooooooooooooollllllllllllll -> cool のように正規化を行っている。
提案されている手法がとてもシンプルでおもしろそうだったので、その正規化だけちょっと試してみたよ、というのがこの記事。
論文に書かれている正規化の手順は次の通り。
- 同じ文字の繰り返しを全て 1 文字につぶした圧縮形を作る(niiiice -> nice, reallllly -> realy)
- 同じ圧縮形ごとにグルーピング
- 3文字以上の文字の繰り返しがないグループは除外
- 各グループの中で、もっとも高頻度の語をそのグループの標準形とする
うん、これなら手元にデータさえあればさくっと試せる。
なぜか、twitter StreamAPI から収集した、(ほぼ全件)英語なツイート 188万件(URL, mention, ハッシュタグ除外済み)が手元にあるので、そいつでさっくり試してみよう。
自然言語処理には Ruby が一番、というお告げがあったので、Ruby で書いてみたのがこちら。スクリプト名はもちろん cooool.rb .
#!/usr/bin/env ruby # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- def downcase(st) st.tr("A-Z\u00c0-\u00d6\u00d8-\u00de\u01e0", "a-z\u00e0-\u00f6\u00f8-\u00fe\u01e1") end map = Hash.new{|h,k| h[k] = Hash.new(0)} open(ARGV[0], "rb:utf-8") do |f| while line = f.gets line.scan(/[A-Za-z\u00c0-\u024f\u1e00-\u1eff]{2,}/) do |word| word = downcase(word) condensed = word.chars.inject("") do |w, c| if w[-1] != c then w + c else w end end map[condensed][word] += 1 end end end map.to_a.sort.each do |condensed, group| list = group.to_a.select{|x| x[1] >= 10} next if list.length <= 1 next unless list.any?{|x| x[0] =~ /(.)\1{2}/} canonical = list.max_by{|x| x[1]} ammount = list.inject(0){|s,x| s+x[1]} puts "#{canonical[0]}(#{canonical[1]}/#{ammount}) : [#{list.map{|x|x[0]}.sort.join(',')}]" end
論文には処理の簡略化やノイズ低減のため、「非アルファベットは除外」「1文字単語は除外」「10回以上出現した単語のみ」「小文字化」などなど書かれていたので基本その方針で。
アルファベットって、あれだよね、一番狭い意味でラテン文字全般ってことだよね、という多言語脳で Basic Latin だけではなく、Laten-1 Supplement と Latin Extended A/B/Additional まで入ってたりする。Extended C と D は多言語脳でも使われているのまだ見たこと無いので、さすがに入れてない。
と大きな口を叩く割りには、小文字化が Laten-1 Supplement までしか対応していないところが情けない(苦笑)。
そのうちラテン文字全般用の小(大)文字化作りたいと思っているんだけど、Extended B がカオスなんだよなあ。
で、189万件のツイートに対して実行すると、392個の正規化グループが得られた。抜粋して掲載しようかと思ったが途中でめんどくさくなったので、末尾にべたっと貼っておく。
おもしろいのは aye や hmm などの感嘆語や lol, lmao, lmfao のようなネットスラングに近い表現(ﾜﾛｽwwwwww とかいう時に使う acronyms)もちゃんとと抽出できている。
tommorow,tommorrow,tomorow,tomorrow,tomorrowwww,tomorrrow のどれが正解でしょう？ とか言われたら人間様だとちょっと迷うところだけど、ちゃんと正しい tomorrow が標準形として……んー、なんかじっと見てると、tomorrow で正しいかどうか自信なくなってきたｗ
ちなみに手順の3番目の「3文字以上の文字の繰り返しがないグループは除外」は単なる typo の類を除外するため、だそうだ。
英語は高々2文字までの繰り返ししかないからこれでうまくいくのかな？
試しにはずしてみると、mary と marry とかが同じグループに入ったりして、おーなるほどと腑に落ちた。
でも soon のグループに son が入ってたりするんだけどね(苦笑)。こういうのは辞書を持つしかないのかなあ、せっかくここまでシンプルなルールだけで来ているのにそれだとつまらないなあ＆英語だけだとそれでもいいけど、多くの言語について適用することを考えると嬉しくないなあ、とつらつら考えていたが、「標準形より短い表現はグループから除外」というシンプルなルールを追加するだけでおおむね行けるんじゃあないかという気がしてきた。要検証だけど。
で、せっかくラテン文字全般を食えるように書いたんだし、英語にこだわる必要も全くないんだから、他の言語についてもやりたいよねえ、と思ってたら、なぜかたまたま手元に(ほぼ)ポルトガル語なツイート 203万件とか(ほぼ)スペイン語とか(ほぼ)オランダ語とかもあったりするので、こいつらももりっと食わせてみたら、やっぱり全然傾向が違っておもしろかったりするんだけど、そっちの結果はわざわざ貼るのはやめておく。
aaa(328/624) : [aa,aaa,aaaa] again(15918/15957) : [again,againn,againnn] agh(59/87) : [agh,aghh,aghhh] ah(2529/6104) : [aaaah,aaaahhhh,aaah,aaahh,aaahhh,aaahhhh,aah,aahh,aahhh,ah,ahh,ahhh,ahhhh,ahhhhh,ahhhhhh,ahhhhhhh,ahhhhhhhh,ahhhhhhhhh,ahhhhhhhhhh,ahhhhhhhhhhh,ahhhhhhhhhhhh,ahhhhhhhhhhhhh] aha(587/706) : [aha,ahaa,ahaaa,ahha] all(93634/95743) : [al,all,alll,allll,alllll,allllll,alllllll,allllllll,alllllllll,allllllllll] alone(3767/3791) : [alone,alonee,aloneee] already(12072/12123) : [already,alreadyy,alreadyyy] always(22064/22118) : [allways,always,alwayss,alwaysss] am(31607/31640) : [am,amm,ammm] amazing(7366/7429) : [amazing,amazingg,amazinggg,amazingggg,amazinggggg] and(280218/280633) : [aaaaaaand,aaaaaand,aaaaand,aaaand,aaand,aand,and,andd,anddd,andddd,anddddd,annd,annnd,annnnd,annnnnd,annnnnnd] are(90489/90539) : [are,aree,areee] as(50111/74362) : [as,ass,asss,assss,asssss,assssss,asssssss] asleep(2360/2370) : [asleeep,asleep] aww(2903/8099) : [aaw,aaww,aawww,aw,aww,awww,awwww,awwwww,awwwwww,awwwwwww,awwwwwwww,awwwwwwwww,awwwwwwwwww,awwwwwwwwwww] away(9775/9801) : [away,awayy,awayyy] awe(423/582) : [awe,awee,aweee,aweeee,awwe,awwwe] awesome(9419/9460) : [awesome,awesomee,awesomeee,awesomeeee] awh(281/532) : [awh,awhh,awhhh,awhhhh,awwh,awwhh,awwwh,awwwwh] ay(467/717) : [ay,ayy,ayyy,ayyyy,ayyyyy,ayyyyyyy] aye(1697/2657) : [aye,ayee,ayeee,ayeeee,ayeeeee,ayeeeeee,ayeeeeeee,ayye,ayyee,ayyeee,ayyeeee,ayyye,ayyyee,ayyyeee,ayyyeeee,ayyyye,ayyyyeee,ayyyyeeee,ayyyyye,ayyyyyye] ayo(229/261) : [ayo,ayoo,ayooo] bb(851/877) : [bb,bbb] baby(11789/12023) : [babby,baby,babyy,babyyy,babyyyy,babyyyyy] back(46040/46281) : [baaaack,baack,back,backk,backkk,backkkk] bad(16765/17180) : [baaaad,bad,badd,baddd,badddd,baddddd,baddddddd] be(133742/134252) : [be,bee,beee,beeee] bed(9037/9079) : [bed,bedd,beddd] been(31629/32486) : [beeeen,beeen,been,ben] best(22557/22606) : [best,bestt,besttt,besttttt] better(21898/21929) : [beter,better,bettter] bih(236/317) : [bih,bihh,bihhh,bihhhh] birthday(9620/9755) : [birthday,birthdayy,birthdayyy,birthdayyyy,birthdayyyyy,birthdayyyyyy] bitch(15306/15525) : [biiitch,bitch,bitchh,bitchhh,bitchhhh,bitchhhhh,bitchhhhhh] bitches(6163/6281) : [bitches,bitchess,bitchesss,bitchessss,bitchesssss] blah(959/1114) : [blah,blahh,blahhh,blahhhh,blahhhhh] boo(3744/4383) : [bo,boo,booo,boooo,booooo,boooooo,booooooo,boooooooo,booooooooo] boi(670/771) : [boi,boii,boiii,boiiii] bored(4177/4285) : [bored,boredd,boreddd,boredddd,boreddddd] boy(7739/7934) : [boooy,boy,boyy,boyyy,boyyyy,boyyyyy] bro(6595/6703) : [bro,broo,brooo,broooo] bruh(2026/2097) : [bruh,bruhh,bruhhh] burr(54/94) : [bur,burr,burrr] but(101214/102924) : [but,butt,buttt,butttt,buttttt,buut,buuut,buuuut,buuuuut] bye(1634/1738) : [bye,byee,byeee,byeeee,byeeeeee] cc(1461/1477) : [cc,ccc] call(15215/15432) : [cal,call,calll] chill(3158/3332) : [chil,chill,chilll,chillll,chilllll,chillllll,chilllllll,chillllllll] chillin(2106/2139) : [chilin,chillin,chillinnn,chilllin] climax(35/46) : [climax,climaxxx] cool(11519/11721) : [col,coll,cool,coool,cooool,coooool] come(25723/25781) : [come,comee,comeee,comme] crazy(10084/10348) : [craaaazy,craaazy,craazy,crazy,crazyy,crazyyy,crazyyyy,crazyyyyy,crazzy] ctfu(2468/2913) : [ctfu,ctfuu,ctfuuu,ctfuuuu,ctfuuuuu,ctfuuuuuu] ctfup(25/69) : [ctfup,ctfupp,ctfuppp,ctfuup] cute(6751/6926) : [cute,cutee,cuteee,cuteeee,cuteeeee,cuuute,cuuuuute] cuz(9633/9754) : [cuz,cuzz,cuzzz] dd(335/462) : [dd,ddd,dddd,ddddd,dddddd] dam(766/933) : [dam,damm,dammm] damn(17798/18384) : [daaaaamn,daaaamn,daaamn,daamn,dammn,damn,damnn,damnnn,damnnnn,damnnnnn,damnnnnnn,damnnnnnnn] dang(1355/1418) : [dang,dangg,danggg] dawg(680/743) : [dawg,dawgg,dawggg,dawgggg] day(47893/48108) : [day,dayy,dayyy,dayyyy,dayyyyy] days(12462/12530) : [days,dayss,daysss,dayssss] dead(5003/5017) : [dead,deaddd] def(3026/3423) : [def,deff,defff] die(4018/4036) : [die,dieee] do(74612/75105) : [do,doo,dooo,doooo,dooooo,doooooo] doe(2382/2512) : [doe,doee,doeee,doeeee] done(12153/12210) : [done,donee,doneee] down(23214/23310) : [down,downn,downnn,downnnn,downnnnn] dude(7187/7232) : [dude,dudee,dudeee,duuude] duh(681/899) : [duh,duhh,duhhh,duhhhh,duhhhhh] dying(1661/1684) : [dying,dyingg,dyinggg] ee(92/164) : [ee,eee,eeee,eeeee,eeeeee] early(7797/7839) : [early,earlyy,earlyyy,earlyyyy] eff(562/694) : [ef,eff,efff] eh(875/1283) : [eh,ehh,ehhh,ehhhh,ehhhhh] eek(71/132) : [eeeeek,eeeek,eeek,eek,ek] em(7055/7177) : [eem,em,emm,emmm] ep(674/713) : [eeep,eep,ep] er(632/838) : [er,err,errr,errrr] errbody(146/222) : [erbody,errbody,errrbody] ever(18055/18224) : [ever,everr,everrr,everrrr,everrrrr,everrrrrr] everyone(13999/14021) : [everyone,everyonee,everyoneee] ew(769/1894) : [eew,eewww,ew,eww,ewww,ewwww,ewwwww,ewwwwww,ewwwwwww,ewwwwwwww,ewwwwwwwww] exactly(3241/3252) : [exactly,exactlyyy] excited(5718/5746) : [excited,excitedd,exciteddd] ff(381/391) : [ff,fff] face(8796/8835) : [face,facee,faceee] facebook(8059/8071) : [facebook,faceboook] far(6148/6168) : [far,farr,farrr] feel(21634/23726) : [feeel,feel,fel,fell] finally(6998/7023) : [finallly,finally,finaly] fine(4026/4092) : [fine,finee,fineee,fineeee] fire(3378/3392) : [fire,fireee] food(8803/8861) : [food,foood,fooood,foooood] fool(2242/2309) : [fol,foll,fool,foool] follow(18521/18621) : [folllow,follow,followw,followww,folow] followers(7730/7779) : [followers,followerss,followersss,folowers] forever(3649/3689) : [forever,foreverrr,foreverrrr,foreverrrrrrr] free(14899/15010) : [fre,free,freee,freeee,freeeee,freeeeeee] friday(7750/7786) : [friday,fridayy,fridayyy,fridayyyy] fuck(27265/27768) : [fuck,fuckk,fuckkk,fuckkkk,fuckkkkk,fuckkkkkk,fuckkkkkkk,fuuck,fuuuck,fuuuuck,fuuuuuck,fuuuuuuck] fuk(542/680) : [fuk,fukk,fukkk] fun(11326/11465) : [fun,funn,funnn,funnnn] funny(10058/10122) : [funnny,funny,funnyy,funnyyy] gah(222/351) : [gah,gahh,gahhh,gahhhh] game(15379/15415) : [game,gamee,gameee] gee(244/416) : [ge,gee,geee] geesh(117/129) : [geeesh,geesh] getting(17100/17136) : [geting,getting,gettting] girl(19888/20208) : [giiirl,girl,girll,girlll,girllll,girlllll,girllllll,girlllllll,girllllllll,girrl,girrrl,girrrrl,girrrrrl] girls(9973/10007) : [girls,girlss,girlsss] go(57260/58024) : [go,goo,gooo,goooo,gooooo,goooooo,gooooooo,goooooooo,gooooooooo] good(60485/76173) : [god,godd,goddd,godddd,goddddd,good,goodd,goood,gooood,goooood,gooooood,goooooood,gooooooood] goodmorning(901/941) : [goodmorning,goodmorningg,goodmorninggg,gooodmorning] goodnight(1906/1928) : [goodnight,goodnightt,gooodnight] gonna(21802/22130) : [gona,gonna,gonnna,goona] gosh(740/772) : [gosh,goshh,goshhh] gotta(14957/15161) : [gota,gotta,gottta] gr(481/1099) : [gr,grr,grrr,grrrr,grrrrr,grrrrrr,grrrrrrr,grrrrrrrr,grrrrrrrrr] great(23865/23895) : [great,greatt,greattt] guess(10114/10188) : [gues,guess,guesss,guessss] guh(157/213) : [guh,guhh,guhhh] gurl(507/531) : [gurl,gurll,gurlll] guys(10853/10908) : [guys,guyss,guysss,guyssss] hh(71/135) : [hh,hhh] ha(5453/5877) : [ha,haa,haaa,haaaa,haaaaa,haaaaaaa,hha] haha(17292/17751) : [haaha,haha,hahaa,hahaaa,hahaaaa,hahha,hahhaa,hhaha] hahaha(4784/5026) : [hahaaha,hahaha,hahahaa,hahahaaa,hahahha,hahahhaa,hahhaha,hhahaha] happy(17063/17180) : [happpppy,happppy,happpy,happy,happyy,happyyyy,happyyyyy] hard(11333/11363) : [hard,hardd,harddd] hate(19506/19575) : [hate,hatee,hateee,hateeee] have(107172/107244) : [haave,have,havee,haveee] hell(10847/11250) : [heel,hel,hell,helll,hellll,helllll,hellllll,helllllll,hellllllll] hello(2711/2839) : [heello,helllo,hello,helloo,hellooo,helloooo,hellooooo,helloooooo,helo] her(40731/40849) : [her,herr,herrr,herrrr,herrrrr] here(35081/35254) : [here,heree,hereee,hereeee,hereeeee,herre] hey(12325/13260) : [heeeeeey,heeeeey,heeeey,heeey,heey,heeyy,heeyyy,hey,heyy,heyyy,heyyyy,heyyyyy,heyyyyyy,heyyyyyyy,heyyyyyyyy] hi(3377/3470) : [hi,hii,hiii,hiiii,hiiiiii] him(22421/22486) : [him,himm,himmm,himmmm] hmm(1594/4211) : [hhmm,hhmmm,hm,hmm,hmmm,hmmmm,hmmmmm,hmmmmmm,hmmmmmmm,hmmmmmmmm] ho(660/981) : [ho,hoo,hooo,hoooo] home(19433/19570) : [home,homee,homeee,homeeee,homeeeee,homme] hot(8457/8782) : [hoot,hot,hott,hottt,hotttt,hottttt,hotttttt] house(13147/13197) : [house,housee,houseee] huge(2381/2392) : [huge,huuuuge] huh(2558/2614) : [huh,huhh,huhhh,huhhhh] hum(180/240) : [hum,humm,hummm] hungry(3239/3287) : [hungry,hungryy,hungryyy,hungryyyy] hurr(60/100) : [hur,hurr,hurrr] ii(1370/1669) : [ii,iii,iiii,iiiii] idk(6035/6093) : [idk,idkk,idkkk] ie(166/176) : [ie,ieee] iight(648/1122) : [ight,ightt,iight,iiight] ill(6057/6374) : [il,ill,illl] im(40458/40615) : [iim,im,imm,immm,immmm] in(258182/258594) : [iin,in,inn,innn,innnn,innnnn,innnnnn] is(248954/249189) : [iis,is,iss,isss,issss,isssss] ish(1689/1778) : [ish,ishh,ishhh,issh] it(261451/261853) : [iit,it,itt,ittt,itttt,ittttt,itttttt,ittttttt] its(41454/41532) : [its,itss,itsss] jeez(174/184) : [jeeez,jeez] jus(6495/7189) : [jus,juss,jusss] kk(184/228) : [kk,kkk] keep(14494/14513) : [keeep,keep] kill(4165/4210) : [kil,kill,killl,killll] kno(5438/5500) : [kno,knoo,knooo] know(61663/62142) : [knooooow,knoooow,knooow,knoow,know,knoww,knowww,knowwww,knowwwww,knowwwwww,knowwwwwww] ll(32811/32844) : [ll,lll] late(6133/6301) : [late,latee,lateee,latte] later(5202/5327) : [later,laterr,laterrr,latter] lawd(472/517) : [lawd,lawdd,lawddd,lawwwd] lego(156/405) : [legggooo,leggo,leggoo,leggooo,leggoooo,lego,legoo,legooo,legoooo] lies(1430/1444) : [lies,liesss] life(26108/26220) : [life,lifee,lifeee,lifeeee,lifeeeee] like(103103/103301) : [liike,like,likee,likeee,likeeee,llike] live(14970/15007) : [live,livee,liveeeee] lmao(26905/33244) : [lmaaao,lmaaaooo,lmaao,lmaaoo,lmaaooo,lmaaoooo,lmao,lmaoo,lmaooo,lmaoooo,lmaooooo,lmaoooooo,lmaooooooo,lmaoooooooo,lmaooooooooo,lmaoooooooooo,lmaooooooooooo,lmaoooooooooooo,lmaooooooooooooo] lmaort(51/66) : [lmaooort,lmaort] lmbo(830/951) : [lmbo,lmboo,lmbooo,lmboooo,lmbooooo] lmfao(7302/11047) : [lmfaaaooo,lmfaao,lmfaaoo,lmfao,lmfaoo,lmfaooo,lmfaoooo,lmfaooooo,lmfaoooooo,lmfaooooooo,lmfaoooooooo,lmfaooooooooo,lmfaoooooooooo,lmfaooooooooooo,lmfaoooooooooooo,lmfaooooooooooooo,lmmfao,lmmfaooo,lmmfaoooo,lmmfaooooo] look(20814/20874) : [lok,look,loook] lol(141118/143131) : [llol,lol,loll,lolll,lollll,lolllll,lollllll,lolllllll,lool,loool,looool,loooool,looooool,loooooool,looooooool,looooooooool] long(13624/13870) : [long,longg,longgg,longggg,longgggg,looong,loooong,looooong,loooooong,looooooong] love(66003/67048) : [looooooove,loooooove,looooove,loooove,looove,loove,love,lovee,loveee,loveeee,loveeeee,loveeeeee,loveeeeeee,loveeeeeeee] loves(2992/3004) : [loves,lovesss] lls(7202/7623) : [llls,lls,llss,llsss,llssss,llsssss,ls] lucky(2359/2392) : [lucky,luckyy,luckyyy,luckyyyy] mm(684/2103) : [mm,mmm,mmmm,mmmmm,mmmmmm,mmmmmmm,mmmmmmmm,mmmmmmmmm] mad(7879/8245) : [maaad,mad,madd,maddd,madddd,maddddd,madddddd] man(25158/26345) : [maaaaaan,maaaaan,maaaan,maaan,maaannn,maan,maannn,man,mann,mannn,mannnn,mannnnn,mannnnnn,mannnnnnn,mannnnnnnn,mannnnnnnnn] mane(725/766) : [mane,manee,maneee] matters(727/740) : [matters,mattters] me(174872/176244) : [me,mee,meee,meeee,meeeee,meeeeee,meeeeeee,meeeeeeee,meeeeeeeee,meeeeeeeeee] mean(11371/11409) : [mean,meann,meannn,meannnn] meh(477/534) : [meeh,meh,mehh,mehhh] mhm(142/439) : [mhm,mhmm,mhmmm,mhmmmm,mmhm,mmhmm,mmhmmm,mmmhmm,mmmhmmm] mind(8041/8064) : [mind,mindd,minddd] miss(13518/13739) : [mis,miss,misss,missss,misssss] missed(4141/4152) : [missed,misssed] money(12263/12331) : [money,moneyy,moneyyy,moneyyyy,mooney] more(39710/40122) : [moore,more,moree,moreee,moreeee,moreeeee] morning(16953/17042) : [morning,morningg,morninggg,morningggg] move(6076/6086) : [move,moveee] movie(8703/8738) : [movie,moviee,movieee] muah(269/310) : [muah,muahh,muahhh,muahhhh] much(25808/25875) : [much,muchh,muchhh] my(268093/268418) : [mmy,my,myy,myyy,myyyy,myyyyy] na(1028/1222) : 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: [yummmy,yummy] yup(2363/2679) : [yup,yupp,yuppp,yupppp,yuup,yuuup,yuuuup] zzz(55/278) : [zz,zzz,zzzz,zzzzz,zzzzzz,zzzzzzz,zzzzzzzz,zzzzzzzzz,zzzzzzzzzz,zzzzzzzzzzz]
